Advanced characterization techniques for thin film solar cells /
Advanced characterization techniques for thin film solar cells /
edited by Daniel Abou-Ras, Thomas Kirchartz, and Uwe Rau.
- Weinheim, Germany : Wiley-VCH, ©2011.
- 1 online resource (xxxvi, 547 pages) : illustrations (some color)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Introduction -- Introduction to Thin-Film Photovoltaics / Introduction -- The Photovoltaic Principle -- The Shockley-Queisser Theory -- From the Ideal Solar Cell to Real Solar Cells -- Light Absorption and Light Trapping -- Charge Extraction -- Nonradiative Recombination -- Functional Layers in Thin-Film Solar Cells -- Comparison of Various Thin-Film Solar-Cell Types -- Cu(In, Ga)Se2 -- Basic Properties and Technology -- Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure -- CdTe -- Basic Properties and Technology -- Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure -- Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells -- Hydrogenated Amorphous Si (a-Si: H) -- Metastability in a-Si: H: The Staebler-Wronski Effect -- Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (& mu;c-Si: H) -- Micromorph Tandem Solar Cells. Uwe Rau -- Machine generated contents note: pt. one 1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.2.1. 1.2.2. 1.2.3. 1.2.4. 1.2.5. 1.3. 1.4. 1.4.1. 1.4.1.1. 1.4.1.2. 1.4.2. 1.4.2.1. 1.4.2.2. 1.4.3. 1.4.3.1. 1.4.3.2. 1.4.3.3. 1.4.3.4. Conclusions -- References -- Device Characterization -- Fundamental Electrical Characterization of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Current/Voltage Curves -- Shape of Current/Voltage Curves and their Description with Equivalent Circuit Models -- Measurement of Current/Voltage Curves -- Determination of Ideality Factors and Series Resistances -- Temperature-Dependent Current/Voltage Measurements -- Quantum Efficiency Measurements -- Definition -- Measurement Principle and Calibration -- Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Tandem Solar Cells -- Differential Spectral Response (DSR) Measurements -- Interpretation of Quantum Efficiency Measurements in Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells -- References -- Electroluminescence Analysis of Solar Cells and Solar Modules / Introduction -- Basics -- Spectrally Resolved Electroluminescence -- Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence of c-Si Solar Cells -- Electroluminescence Imaging of Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Modules. Uwe Rau -- Uwe Rau -- 1.5. pt. Two 2. 2.1. 2.2. 2.2.1. 2.2.2. 2.2.3. 2.2.4. 2.3. 2.3.1. 2.3.2. 2.3.3. 2.3.4. 2.3.5. 3. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. Modeling of Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence -- References -- Capacitance Spectroscopy of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Admittance Basics -- Sample Requirements -- Instrumentation -- Capacitance-Voltage Profiling and the Depletion Approximation -- Admittance Response of Deep States -- The Influence of Deep States on CV Profiles -- DLTS -- DLTS of Thin-Film PV Devices -- Admittance Spectroscopy -- Drive Level Capacitance Profiling -- Photocapacitance -- The Meyer-Neldel Rule -- Spatial Inhomogeneities and Interface States -- Metastability -- References -- Materials Characterization -- Characterizing the Light-Trapping Properties of Textured Surfaces with Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy / Introduction -- How Does a Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope Work? -- Light Scattering in the Wave Picture -- The Role of Evanescent Modes for Light Trapping -- Analysis of Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Images by Fast Fourier Transformation. Pawel Zabierowski -- Karsten Bittkau -- 3.6. 4. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.8.1. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12. 4.13. 4.14. pt. Three 5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. How to Extract Far-Field Scattering Properties by Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy? -- Conclusion -- References -- Spectroscopic Ellipsometry / Introduction -- Theory -- Polarized Light -- Reflection from a Single Interface -- Ellipsometry Instrumentation -- Rotating Analyzer SE for Ex-Situ Applications -- Rotating Compensator SE for Real-Time Applications -- Data Analysis -- Exact Numerical Inversion -- Least-Squares Regression -- Virtual Interface Analysis -- RTSE of Thin Film Photovoltaics -- Thin Si: H -- CdTe -- CuInSe2 -- Summary and Future -- Definition of Variables -- References -- Photoluminescence Analysis of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Experimental Issues -- Design of the Optical System -- Calibration -- Cryostat -- Basic Transitions -- Excitons -- Free-Bound Transitions -- Donor-Acceptor Pair Recombination -- Potential Fluctuations. Robert W. Collins -- Levent Gutay -- 5.6. 5.7. 6. 6.1. 6.2. 6.2.1. 6.2.2. 6.3. 6.3.1. 6.3.2. 6.4. 6.4.1. 6.4.2. 6.4.3. 6.5. 6.5.1. 6.5.2. 6.5.3. 6.6. 6.7. 7. 7.1. 7.2. 7.2.1. 7.2.2. 7.2.3. 7.3. 7.3.1. 7.3.2. 7.3.3. 7.3.4. Band-Band Transitions -- Case Studies -- Low-Temperature Photoluminescence Analysis -- Room-Temperature Measurements: Estimation of Voc from PL Yield -- Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence: Absorber Inhomogeneities -- References -- Steady-State Photocarrier Crating Method / Introduction -- Basic Analysis of SSPG and Photocurrent Response -- Optical Model -- Semiconductor Equations -- Diffusion Length: Ritter-Zeldov-Weiser Analysis -- Evaluation Schemes -- More Detailed Analyses -- Influence of the Dark Conductivity -- Influence of Traps -- Minority-Carrier and Majority-Carrier Mobility-Lifetime Products -- Experimental Setup -- Data Analysis -- Results -- Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon -- Temperature and Generation Rate Dependence -- Surface Recombination -- Electric-Field Influence -- Fermi-Level Position -- Defects and Light-Induced Degradation. Rudolf Bruggemann -- 7.3.5. 7.4. 7.4.1. 7.4.2. 7.4.3. 8. 8.1. 8.2. 8.2.1. 8.2.2. 8.2.3. 8.2.3.1. 8.2.4. 8.2.4.1. 8.2.4.2. 8.2.4.3. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.5.1. 8.5.1.1. 8.5.1.2. 8.5.1.3. 8.5.1.4. 8.5.1.5. Thin-Film Characterization and Deposition Methods -- Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Alloys -- Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon -- Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Germanium -- Other Thin-Film Semiconductors -- Density-of-States Determination -- Summary -- References -- Time-of-Flight Analysis / Introduction -- Fundamentals of TOF Measurements -- Anomalous Dispersion -- Basic Electronic Properties of Thin-Film Semiconductors -- Experimental Details -- Accompanying Measurements -- Capacitance -- Collection -- Built-in Field -- Current Decay -- Charge Transient -- Possible Problems -- Dielectric Relaxation -- Inhomogeneous Field -- Analysis of TOF Results -- Multiple Trapping -- Overview of the Processes -- Energetic Distribution of Carriers -- Time Dependence of Electrical Current -- Spatial Charge Distribution -- Temperature Dependence. Torsten Bronger -- 8.5.1.6. 8.5.2. 8.5.3. 8.5.4. 8.5.5. 8.6. 8.7. 9. 9.1. 9.2. 9.2.1. 9.2.2. 9.3. 9.3.1. 9.3.1.1. 9.3.1.2. 9.3.1.3. 9.3.2. 9.3.3. 9.3.4. 9.3.4.1. 9.3.5. 9.4. 9.4.1. 9.4.1.1. 9.4.1.2. 9.4.1.3. 9.4.2. 9.4.2.1. Density of States -- Widths of Band Tails -- Probing of Deep States -- References -- Electron-Spin Resonance (ESR) in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si: H) / Introduction -- Basics of ESR -- How to Measure ESR -- ESR Setup and Measurement Procedure -- Pulse ESR -- Sample Preparation -- The g Tensor and Hyperfine Interaction in Disordered Solids -- Zeeman Energy and g Tensor -- Hyperfine Interaction -- Line-Broadening Mechanisms -- Discussion of Selected Results -- ESR on Undoped a-Si: H -- LESR on Undoped a-Si: H -- ESR on Doped a-Si: H -- Light-Induced Degradation in a-Si: H -- Excess Charge-Carrier Recombination and Weak Si-Si Bond Breaking -- Si-H Bond Dissociation and Hydrogen Collision Model -- Transformation of Existing Nonparamagnetic Charged Dangling-Bond Defects -- Alternative ESR Detection -- History of EDMR -- EDMR on a-Si: H Solar Cells. Jan Behrends -- 9.4.3. 9.4.3.1. 9.4.3.2. 10. 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.3.1. 10.3.2. 10.3.3. 10.4. 10.4.1. 10.4.2. 10.4.3. 10.5. 10.5.1. 10.5.2. 10.5.3. 10.5.4. 10.5.4.1. 10.5.4.2. 10.5.4.3. 10.6. 10.6.1. 10.6.2. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Scanning Probe Microscopy on Inorganic Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Experimental Background -- Atomic Force Microscopy -- Contact Mode -- Noncontact Mode -- Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy -- Scanning Capacitance Microscopy -- Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy -- Scanning Tunneling Microscopy -- Issues of Sample Preparation -- Selected Applications -- Surface Homogeneity -- Grain Boundaries -- Cross-Sectional Studies -- Summary -- References -- Electron Microscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Scanning Electron Microscopy -- Imaging Techniques -- Electron Backscatter Diffraction -- Energy-Dispersive and Wavelength-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry -- Electron-Beam-Induced Current Measurements -- Electron-Beam Generation -- Charge-Carrier Collection in a Solar Cell. Iris Visoly-Fisher -- Sebastian S. Schmidt -- 10.7. 11. 11.1. 11.2. 11.2.1. 11.2.1.1. 11.2.1.2. 11.2.2. 11.2.3. 11.2.4. 11.2.5. 11.2.6. 11.3. 11.3.1. 11.3.2. 11.3.3. 11.4. 12. 12.1. 12.2. 12.2.1. 12.2.2. 12.2.3. 12.2.4. 12.2.4.1. 12.2.4.2. Experimental Setups -- Critical Issues -- Cathodoluminescence -- Example: Spectrum Imaging of CdTe Thin Films -- Scanning Probe and Scanning-Probe Microscopy Integrated Platform -- Combination of Various Scanning Electron Microscopy Techniques -- Transmission Electron Microscopy -- Imaging Techniques -- Bright-Field and Dark-Field Imaging in the Conventional Mode -- High-Resolution Imaging in the Conventional Mode -- Imaging in the Scanning Mode Using an Annular Dark-Field Detector -- Electron Diffraction. 12.2.4.3. 12.2.4.4. 12.2.5. 12.2.5.1. 12.2.6. 12.2.7. 12.3. 12.3.1. 12.3.1.1. 12.3.1.2. 12.3.1.3. 12.3.2. Selected-Area Electron Diffraction in the Conventional Mode -- Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction in the Scanning Mode -- Electron Energy-Loss Spectrometry and Energy-Filtered Transmission Electron Microscopy -- Scattering Theory -- Experiment and Setup -- The Energy-Loss Spectrum -- Applications and Comparison with EDX Spectroscopy -- Off-Axis and In-Line Electron Holography -- Sample Preparation Techniques -- Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy -- Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy -- References -- X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction on Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Diffraction of X-Rays and Neutron by Matter -- Neutron Powder Diffraction of Absorber Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells -- Example: Investigation of Intrinsic Point Defects in Nonstoichiometric CuInSe2 by Neutron Diffraction. Roland Mainz -- Note continued: 12.3.2.1. 12.3.2.2. 12.3.3. 12.3.3.1. 12.3.3.2. 12.3.3.3. 12.3.3.4. 12.3.4. 12.4. 12.4.1. 12.4.2. 13. 13.1. 13.2. 13.3. 13.3.1. Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD) -- Energy Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction (EDXRD) -- References -- Raman Spectroscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Fundamentals of Raman Spectroscopy -- Vibrational Modes in Crystalline Materials -- Experimental Considerations -- Laser Source -- Light Collection and Focusing Optics -- Spectroscopic Module -- Characterization of Thin-Film Photovoltaic Materials -- Identification of Crystalline Structures -- Evaluation of Film Crystallinity -- Chemical Analysis of Semiconducting Alloys -- Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Materials -- Evaluation of Stress -- Conclusions -- References -- Soft X-Ray and Electron Spectroscopy: A Unique "Tool Chest" to Characterize the Chemical and Electronic Properties of Surfaces and Interfaces / Introduction -- Characterization Techniques -- Probing the Chemical Surface Structure: Impact of Wet Chemical Treatments on Thin-Film Solar Cell Absorbers. Alejandro Perez-Rodriguez -- Clemens Heske -- 13.4. 13.5. 14. 14.1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. 14.4.1. 14.4.2. 14.4.3. 14.5. 14.5.1. 14.5.2. 14.5.3. 14.5.4. 14.5.5. 14.6. 15. 15.1. 15.2. 15.3. Probing the Electronic Surface and Interface Structure: Band Alignment in Thin-Film Solar Cells -- Summary -- References -- Elemental Distribution Profiling of Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Glow Discharge-Optical Emission (GD-OES) and Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy (GD-MS) -- Principles -- Instrumentation -- Plasma Sources -- Plasma Conditions -- Detection of Optical Emission -- Mass Spectroscopy -- Quantification -- Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy -- Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy -- Applications -- Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy -- Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy -- Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) -- Principle of the Method -- Data Analysis -- Quantification -- Applications for Solar Cells -- Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) -- Introduction -- The Auger Process -- Auger Electron Signals. Raquel Caballero -- 15.4. 15.5. 16. 16.1. 16.2. 16.2.1. 16.2.2. 16.2.2.1. 16.2.2.2. 16.2.2.3. 16.2.2.4. 16.2.3. 16.2.3.1. 16.2.3.2. 16.2.4. 16.2.4.1. 16.2.4.2. 16.3. 16.3.1. 16.3.2. 16.3.3. 16.3.4. 16.4. 16.4.1. 16.4.2. 16.4.3. Instrumentation -- Auger Electron Signal Intensities and Quantification -- Quantification -- Application -- X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) -- Theoretical Principles -- Instrumentation -- Application to Thin Film Solar Cells -- Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Analysis on Fractured Cross Sections -- Basics on Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry in a Scanning Electron Microscope -- Spatial Resolutions -- Applications -- Sample Preparation -- References -- Hydrogen Effusion Experiments / Introduction -- Experimental Setup -- Data Analysis -- Identification of Rate-Limiting Process -- Analysis of Diffusing Hydrogen Species from Hydrogen Effusion Measurements -- Analysis of H2 Surface Desorption -- Analysis of Diffusion-Limited Effusion -- Analysis of Effusion Spectra in Terms of Hydrogen Density of States -- Analysis of Film Microstructure by Effusion of Implanted Rare Gases. Florian Einsele -- 16.4.4. 16.4.5. 16.4.6. 16.4.7. 16.5. 16.5.1. 16.5.2. 16.5.3. 16.6. 16.6.1. 16.6.2. 16.6.3. 16.6.3.1. 17. 17.1. 17.2. 17.3. 17.3.1. 17.3.2. 17.3.3. 17.3.4. 17.3.5. 17.3.6. Discussion of Selected Results -- Amorphous Silicon and Germanium Films -- Material Density versus Annealing and Hydrogen Content -- Effect of Doping on H Effusion -- Amorphous Silicon Alloys: Si-C -- Microcrystalline Silicon -- Zinc Oxide Films -- Comparison with Other Experiments -- Concluding Remarks -- References -- Materials and Device Modeling -- Ab-Initio Modeling of Defects in Semiconductors / Introduction -- Density Functional Theory and Methods -- Basis Sets -- Functionals for Exchange and Correlation -- Local Approximations -- Functionals Beyond LDA/GGA -- Methods Beyond DFT -- From Total Energies to Materials' Properties -- Ab-initio Characterization of Point Defects -- Thermodynamics of Point Defects -- Formation Energies from Ab-Initio Calculations -- Case study Point Defects in ZnO -- Conclusions -- References -- One-Dimensional Electro-Optical Simulations of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Johan Pohl -- Thomas Kirchartz. 17.4. 17.4.1. 17.4.1.1. 17.4.1.2. 17.4.2. 17.4.3. 17.4.4. 17.5. 17.6. pt. Four 18. 18.1. 18.2. 18.2.1. 18.2.2. 18.2.2.1. 18.2.2.2. 18.3. 18.4. 18.5. 18.5.1. 18.5.2. 18.5.3. 18.6. 19. Introduction -- Fundamentals -- Modeling Hydrogenated Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon -- Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon -- Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon -- Modeling Recombination in a-Si: H and & mu;c-Si: H -- Recombination Statistics for Single-Electron States: Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination -- Recombination Statistics for Amphoteric States -- Modeling Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Solar Cells -- Graded Band-Gap Devices -- Issues when Modeling Graded Band-Gap Devices -- Example -- Modeling of CdTe Solar Cells -- Baseline -- The & Phi;b -- NAc (Barrier-Doping) Trade-Off -- C-V Analysis as an Interpretation Aid of I-V Curves -- Optical Modeling of Thin Solar Cells -- Coherent Modeling of Flat Interfaces -- Modeling of Rough Interfaces -- Tools -- AFORS-HET -- AMPS-1D -- ASA -- PC1D -- SCAPS. 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.3.1. 19.3.2. 19.3.3. 19.3.3.1. 19.3.3.2. 19.3.4. 19.3.4.1. 19.3.4.2. 19.3.4.3. 19.3.5. 19.3.5.1. 19.3.5.2. 19.3.5.3. 19.4. 19.4.1. 19.4.2. 19.5. 19.5.1. 19.5.2. 19.5.3. 19.5.4. 19.5.5. SC-SIMUL -- References -- Two- and Three-Dimensional Electronic Modeling of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Applications -- Methods -- Equivalent-Circuit Modeling -- Solving Semiconductor Equations -- Creating a Semiconductor Model -- Examples -- Equivalent-Circuit Modeling Examples -- Semiconductor Modeling Examples -- Summary -- References. Wyatt K. Metzger -- 19.5.6. 20. 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. 20.3.1. 20.3.2. 20.4.2.1. 20.4. 20.4.1. 20.4.2. 20.5.
9783527636303 3527636307 9783527636280 3527636285 9783527636297 3527636293 9783527636310 3527636315
10.1002/9783527636280 Wiley InterScience http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
Photovoltaic cells--Materials--Research.
TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING--Mechanical.
Electronic books.
TK8322 / .A38 2011eb
621.472
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Introduction -- Introduction to Thin-Film Photovoltaics / Introduction -- The Photovoltaic Principle -- The Shockley-Queisser Theory -- From the Ideal Solar Cell to Real Solar Cells -- Light Absorption and Light Trapping -- Charge Extraction -- Nonradiative Recombination -- Functional Layers in Thin-Film Solar Cells -- Comparison of Various Thin-Film Solar-Cell Types -- Cu(In, Ga)Se2 -- Basic Properties and Technology -- Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure -- CdTe -- Basic Properties and Technology -- Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure -- Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells -- Hydrogenated Amorphous Si (a-Si: H) -- Metastability in a-Si: H: The Staebler-Wronski Effect -- Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (& mu;c-Si: H) -- Micromorph Tandem Solar Cells. Uwe Rau -- Machine generated contents note: pt. one 1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.2.1. 1.2.2. 1.2.3. 1.2.4. 1.2.5. 1.3. 1.4. 1.4.1. 1.4.1.1. 1.4.1.2. 1.4.2. 1.4.2.1. 1.4.2.2. 1.4.3. 1.4.3.1. 1.4.3.2. 1.4.3.3. 1.4.3.4. Conclusions -- References -- Device Characterization -- Fundamental Electrical Characterization of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Current/Voltage Curves -- Shape of Current/Voltage Curves and their Description with Equivalent Circuit Models -- Measurement of Current/Voltage Curves -- Determination of Ideality Factors and Series Resistances -- Temperature-Dependent Current/Voltage Measurements -- Quantum Efficiency Measurements -- Definition -- Measurement Principle and Calibration -- Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Tandem Solar Cells -- Differential Spectral Response (DSR) Measurements -- Interpretation of Quantum Efficiency Measurements in Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells -- References -- Electroluminescence Analysis of Solar Cells and Solar Modules / Introduction -- Basics -- Spectrally Resolved Electroluminescence -- Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence of c-Si Solar Cells -- Electroluminescence Imaging of Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Modules. Uwe Rau -- Uwe Rau -- 1.5. pt. Two 2. 2.1. 2.2. 2.2.1. 2.2.2. 2.2.3. 2.2.4. 2.3. 2.3.1. 2.3.2. 2.3.3. 2.3.4. 2.3.5. 3. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. Modeling of Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence -- References -- Capacitance Spectroscopy of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Admittance Basics -- Sample Requirements -- Instrumentation -- Capacitance-Voltage Profiling and the Depletion Approximation -- Admittance Response of Deep States -- The Influence of Deep States on CV Profiles -- DLTS -- DLTS of Thin-Film PV Devices -- Admittance Spectroscopy -- Drive Level Capacitance Profiling -- Photocapacitance -- The Meyer-Neldel Rule -- Spatial Inhomogeneities and Interface States -- Metastability -- References -- Materials Characterization -- Characterizing the Light-Trapping Properties of Textured Surfaces with Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy / Introduction -- How Does a Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope Work? -- Light Scattering in the Wave Picture -- The Role of Evanescent Modes for Light Trapping -- Analysis of Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Images by Fast Fourier Transformation. Pawel Zabierowski -- Karsten Bittkau -- 3.6. 4. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.8.1. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12. 4.13. 4.14. pt. Three 5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. How to Extract Far-Field Scattering Properties by Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy? -- Conclusion -- References -- Spectroscopic Ellipsometry / Introduction -- Theory -- Polarized Light -- Reflection from a Single Interface -- Ellipsometry Instrumentation -- Rotating Analyzer SE for Ex-Situ Applications -- Rotating Compensator SE for Real-Time Applications -- Data Analysis -- Exact Numerical Inversion -- Least-Squares Regression -- Virtual Interface Analysis -- RTSE of Thin Film Photovoltaics -- Thin Si: H -- CdTe -- CuInSe2 -- Summary and Future -- Definition of Variables -- References -- Photoluminescence Analysis of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Experimental Issues -- Design of the Optical System -- Calibration -- Cryostat -- Basic Transitions -- Excitons -- Free-Bound Transitions -- Donor-Acceptor Pair Recombination -- Potential Fluctuations. Robert W. Collins -- Levent Gutay -- 5.6. 5.7. 6. 6.1. 6.2. 6.2.1. 6.2.2. 6.3. 6.3.1. 6.3.2. 6.4. 6.4.1. 6.4.2. 6.4.3. 6.5. 6.5.1. 6.5.2. 6.5.3. 6.6. 6.7. 7. 7.1. 7.2. 7.2.1. 7.2.2. 7.2.3. 7.3. 7.3.1. 7.3.2. 7.3.3. 7.3.4. Band-Band Transitions -- Case Studies -- Low-Temperature Photoluminescence Analysis -- Room-Temperature Measurements: Estimation of Voc from PL Yield -- Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence: Absorber Inhomogeneities -- References -- Steady-State Photocarrier Crating Method / Introduction -- Basic Analysis of SSPG and Photocurrent Response -- Optical Model -- Semiconductor Equations -- Diffusion Length: Ritter-Zeldov-Weiser Analysis -- Evaluation Schemes -- More Detailed Analyses -- Influence of the Dark Conductivity -- Influence of Traps -- Minority-Carrier and Majority-Carrier Mobility-Lifetime Products -- Experimental Setup -- Data Analysis -- Results -- Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon -- Temperature and Generation Rate Dependence -- Surface Recombination -- Electric-Field Influence -- Fermi-Level Position -- Defects and Light-Induced Degradation. Rudolf Bruggemann -- 7.3.5. 7.4. 7.4.1. 7.4.2. 7.4.3. 8. 8.1. 8.2. 8.2.1. 8.2.2. 8.2.3. 8.2.3.1. 8.2.4. 8.2.4.1. 8.2.4.2. 8.2.4.3. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.5.1. 8.5.1.1. 8.5.1.2. 8.5.1.3. 8.5.1.4. 8.5.1.5. Thin-Film Characterization and Deposition Methods -- Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Alloys -- Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon -- Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Germanium -- Other Thin-Film Semiconductors -- Density-of-States Determination -- Summary -- References -- Time-of-Flight Analysis / Introduction -- Fundamentals of TOF Measurements -- Anomalous Dispersion -- Basic Electronic Properties of Thin-Film Semiconductors -- Experimental Details -- Accompanying Measurements -- Capacitance -- Collection -- Built-in Field -- Current Decay -- Charge Transient -- Possible Problems -- Dielectric Relaxation -- Inhomogeneous Field -- Analysis of TOF Results -- Multiple Trapping -- Overview of the Processes -- Energetic Distribution of Carriers -- Time Dependence of Electrical Current -- Spatial Charge Distribution -- Temperature Dependence. Torsten Bronger -- 8.5.1.6. 8.5.2. 8.5.3. 8.5.4. 8.5.5. 8.6. 8.7. 9. 9.1. 9.2. 9.2.1. 9.2.2. 9.3. 9.3.1. 9.3.1.1. 9.3.1.2. 9.3.1.3. 9.3.2. 9.3.3. 9.3.4. 9.3.4.1. 9.3.5. 9.4. 9.4.1. 9.4.1.1. 9.4.1.2. 9.4.1.3. 9.4.2. 9.4.2.1. Density of States -- Widths of Band Tails -- Probing of Deep States -- References -- Electron-Spin Resonance (ESR) in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si: H) / Introduction -- Basics of ESR -- How to Measure ESR -- ESR Setup and Measurement Procedure -- Pulse ESR -- Sample Preparation -- The g Tensor and Hyperfine Interaction in Disordered Solids -- Zeeman Energy and g Tensor -- Hyperfine Interaction -- Line-Broadening Mechanisms -- Discussion of Selected Results -- ESR on Undoped a-Si: H -- LESR on Undoped a-Si: H -- ESR on Doped a-Si: H -- Light-Induced Degradation in a-Si: H -- Excess Charge-Carrier Recombination and Weak Si-Si Bond Breaking -- Si-H Bond Dissociation and Hydrogen Collision Model -- Transformation of Existing Nonparamagnetic Charged Dangling-Bond Defects -- Alternative ESR Detection -- History of EDMR -- EDMR on a-Si: H Solar Cells. Jan Behrends -- 9.4.3. 9.4.3.1. 9.4.3.2. 10. 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.3.1. 10.3.2. 10.3.3. 10.4. 10.4.1. 10.4.2. 10.4.3. 10.5. 10.5.1. 10.5.2. 10.5.3. 10.5.4. 10.5.4.1. 10.5.4.2. 10.5.4.3. 10.6. 10.6.1. 10.6.2. Concluding Remarks -- References -- Scanning Probe Microscopy on Inorganic Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Experimental Background -- Atomic Force Microscopy -- Contact Mode -- Noncontact Mode -- Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy -- Scanning Capacitance Microscopy -- Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy -- Scanning Tunneling Microscopy -- Issues of Sample Preparation -- Selected Applications -- Surface Homogeneity -- Grain Boundaries -- Cross-Sectional Studies -- Summary -- References -- Electron Microscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Scanning Electron Microscopy -- Imaging Techniques -- Electron Backscatter Diffraction -- Energy-Dispersive and Wavelength-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry -- Electron-Beam-Induced Current Measurements -- Electron-Beam Generation -- Charge-Carrier Collection in a Solar Cell. Iris Visoly-Fisher -- Sebastian S. Schmidt -- 10.7. 11. 11.1. 11.2. 11.2.1. 11.2.1.1. 11.2.1.2. 11.2.2. 11.2.3. 11.2.4. 11.2.5. 11.2.6. 11.3. 11.3.1. 11.3.2. 11.3.3. 11.4. 12. 12.1. 12.2. 12.2.1. 12.2.2. 12.2.3. 12.2.4. 12.2.4.1. 12.2.4.2. Experimental Setups -- Critical Issues -- Cathodoluminescence -- Example: Spectrum Imaging of CdTe Thin Films -- Scanning Probe and Scanning-Probe Microscopy Integrated Platform -- Combination of Various Scanning Electron Microscopy Techniques -- Transmission Electron Microscopy -- Imaging Techniques -- Bright-Field and Dark-Field Imaging in the Conventional Mode -- High-Resolution Imaging in the Conventional Mode -- Imaging in the Scanning Mode Using an Annular Dark-Field Detector -- Electron Diffraction. 12.2.4.3. 12.2.4.4. 12.2.5. 12.2.5.1. 12.2.6. 12.2.7. 12.3. 12.3.1. 12.3.1.1. 12.3.1.2. 12.3.1.3. 12.3.2. Selected-Area Electron Diffraction in the Conventional Mode -- Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction in the Scanning Mode -- Electron Energy-Loss Spectrometry and Energy-Filtered Transmission Electron Microscopy -- Scattering Theory -- Experiment and Setup -- The Energy-Loss Spectrum -- Applications and Comparison with EDX Spectroscopy -- Off-Axis and In-Line Electron Holography -- Sample Preparation Techniques -- Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy -- Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy -- References -- X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction on Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Diffraction of X-Rays and Neutron by Matter -- Neutron Powder Diffraction of Absorber Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells -- Example: Investigation of Intrinsic Point Defects in Nonstoichiometric CuInSe2 by Neutron Diffraction. Roland Mainz -- Note continued: 12.3.2.1. 12.3.2.2. 12.3.3. 12.3.3.1. 12.3.3.2. 12.3.3.3. 12.3.3.4. 12.3.4. 12.4. 12.4.1. 12.4.2. 13. 13.1. 13.2. 13.3. 13.3.1. Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD) -- Energy Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction (EDXRD) -- References -- Raman Spectroscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Fundamentals of Raman Spectroscopy -- Vibrational Modes in Crystalline Materials -- Experimental Considerations -- Laser Source -- Light Collection and Focusing Optics -- Spectroscopic Module -- Characterization of Thin-Film Photovoltaic Materials -- Identification of Crystalline Structures -- Evaluation of Film Crystallinity -- Chemical Analysis of Semiconducting Alloys -- Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Materials -- Evaluation of Stress -- Conclusions -- References -- Soft X-Ray and Electron Spectroscopy: A Unique "Tool Chest" to Characterize the Chemical and Electronic Properties of Surfaces and Interfaces / Introduction -- Characterization Techniques -- Probing the Chemical Surface Structure: Impact of Wet Chemical Treatments on Thin-Film Solar Cell Absorbers. Alejandro Perez-Rodriguez -- Clemens Heske -- 13.4. 13.5. 14. 14.1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. 14.4.1. 14.4.2. 14.4.3. 14.5. 14.5.1. 14.5.2. 14.5.3. 14.5.4. 14.5.5. 14.6. 15. 15.1. 15.2. 15.3. Probing the Electronic Surface and Interface Structure: Band Alignment in Thin-Film Solar Cells -- Summary -- References -- Elemental Distribution Profiling of Thin Films for Solar Cells / Introduction -- Glow Discharge-Optical Emission (GD-OES) and Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy (GD-MS) -- Principles -- Instrumentation -- Plasma Sources -- Plasma Conditions -- Detection of Optical Emission -- Mass Spectroscopy -- Quantification -- Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy -- Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy -- Applications -- Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy -- Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy -- Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) -- Principle of the Method -- Data Analysis -- Quantification -- Applications for Solar Cells -- Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) -- Introduction -- The Auger Process -- Auger Electron Signals. Raquel Caballero -- 15.4. 15.5. 16. 16.1. 16.2. 16.2.1. 16.2.2. 16.2.2.1. 16.2.2.2. 16.2.2.3. 16.2.2.4. 16.2.3. 16.2.3.1. 16.2.3.2. 16.2.4. 16.2.4.1. 16.2.4.2. 16.3. 16.3.1. 16.3.2. 16.3.3. 16.3.4. 16.4. 16.4.1. 16.4.2. 16.4.3. Instrumentation -- Auger Electron Signal Intensities and Quantification -- Quantification -- Application -- X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) -- Theoretical Principles -- Instrumentation -- Application to Thin Film Solar Cells -- Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Analysis on Fractured Cross Sections -- Basics on Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry in a Scanning Electron Microscope -- Spatial Resolutions -- Applications -- Sample Preparation -- References -- Hydrogen Effusion Experiments / Introduction -- Experimental Setup -- Data Analysis -- Identification of Rate-Limiting Process -- Analysis of Diffusing Hydrogen Species from Hydrogen Effusion Measurements -- Analysis of H2 Surface Desorption -- Analysis of Diffusion-Limited Effusion -- Analysis of Effusion Spectra in Terms of Hydrogen Density of States -- Analysis of Film Microstructure by Effusion of Implanted Rare Gases. Florian Einsele -- 16.4.4. 16.4.5. 16.4.6. 16.4.7. 16.5. 16.5.1. 16.5.2. 16.5.3. 16.6. 16.6.1. 16.6.2. 16.6.3. 16.6.3.1. 17. 17.1. 17.2. 17.3. 17.3.1. 17.3.2. 17.3.3. 17.3.4. 17.3.5. 17.3.6. Discussion of Selected Results -- Amorphous Silicon and Germanium Films -- Material Density versus Annealing and Hydrogen Content -- Effect of Doping on H Effusion -- Amorphous Silicon Alloys: Si-C -- Microcrystalline Silicon -- Zinc Oxide Films -- Comparison with Other Experiments -- Concluding Remarks -- References -- Materials and Device Modeling -- Ab-Initio Modeling of Defects in Semiconductors / Introduction -- Density Functional Theory and Methods -- Basis Sets -- Functionals for Exchange and Correlation -- Local Approximations -- Functionals Beyond LDA/GGA -- Methods Beyond DFT -- From Total Energies to Materials' Properties -- Ab-initio Characterization of Point Defects -- Thermodynamics of Point Defects -- Formation Energies from Ab-Initio Calculations -- Case study Point Defects in ZnO -- Conclusions -- References -- One-Dimensional Electro-Optical Simulations of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Johan Pohl -- Thomas Kirchartz. 17.4. 17.4.1. 17.4.1.1. 17.4.1.2. 17.4.2. 17.4.3. 17.4.4. 17.5. 17.6. pt. Four 18. 18.1. 18.2. 18.2.1. 18.2.2. 18.2.2.1. 18.2.2.2. 18.3. 18.4. 18.5. 18.5.1. 18.5.2. 18.5.3. 18.6. 19. Introduction -- Fundamentals -- Modeling Hydrogenated Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon -- Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon -- Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon -- Modeling Recombination in a-Si: H and & mu;c-Si: H -- Recombination Statistics for Single-Electron States: Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination -- Recombination Statistics for Amphoteric States -- Modeling Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Solar Cells -- Graded Band-Gap Devices -- Issues when Modeling Graded Band-Gap Devices -- Example -- Modeling of CdTe Solar Cells -- Baseline -- The & Phi;b -- NAc (Barrier-Doping) Trade-Off -- C-V Analysis as an Interpretation Aid of I-V Curves -- Optical Modeling of Thin Solar Cells -- Coherent Modeling of Flat Interfaces -- Modeling of Rough Interfaces -- Tools -- AFORS-HET -- AMPS-1D -- ASA -- PC1D -- SCAPS. 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.3.1. 19.3.2. 19.3.3. 19.3.3.1. 19.3.3.2. 19.3.4. 19.3.4.1. 19.3.4.2. 19.3.4.3. 19.3.5. 19.3.5.1. 19.3.5.2. 19.3.5.3. 19.4. 19.4.1. 19.4.2. 19.5. 19.5.1. 19.5.2. 19.5.3. 19.5.4. 19.5.5. SC-SIMUL -- References -- Two- and Three-Dimensional Electronic Modeling of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Introduction -- Applications -- Methods -- Equivalent-Circuit Modeling -- Solving Semiconductor Equations -- Creating a Semiconductor Model -- Examples -- Equivalent-Circuit Modeling Examples -- Semiconductor Modeling Examples -- Summary -- References. Wyatt K. Metzger -- 19.5.6. 20. 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. 20.3.1. 20.3.2. 20.4.2.1. 20.4. 20.4.1. 20.4.2. 20.5.
9783527636303 3527636307 9783527636280 3527636285 9783527636297 3527636293 9783527636310 3527636315
10.1002/9783527636280 Wiley InterScience http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
Photovoltaic cells--Materials--Research.
TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING--Mechanical.
Electronic books.
TK8322 / .A38 2011eb
621.472